Mutualism, Parasitism, and Commensalism

Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship. When two organisms depend on each other and benefit from each other. Example is termites and intestinal flagellates

Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives in or on another organism (the host) and consequently harms it. When one organism lives on another and harms it. Examples are ticks, lice, and mosquitoes



Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed. When one organism benefits from the other and the second organism isn’t helped or harmed. Example is barnacles adhering to the skin of a whale or shell of a mollusk.

Four Organic Compounds

The four organic compounds are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Protein, and Nucleic Acids.
Carbohydrates are energy production and storage for structure. They have one carbon to two hydrogen’s to one oxygen. Carbs can also be described as sugar and starches. They have five carbons with (-OH). The monomers are glucose and fructose.

Lipids are hydrocarbons and mainly non-polar components of cells. They include Fats (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membrane), waxes (waterproofing), and steroids (hormones). The monomers are fatty acids.


Proteins are macromolecule. There structure is collagen in skin, keratin in hair, crystalline in eyes. All metabolic transformations, build up, rearrange and break down of organic compounds, which are done by enzymes. Oxygen in the blood is carries by hemoglobin, everything that goes in or out of cell are carried by protein. The monomers are amino acids.

Nucleic Acids they have nucleotides, which have three parts: sugar, phosphate, and a base. They store genetic information in the cell and are involved in energy and electron movement. They include RNA and DNA. They have five carbons with (-H) and ATP.

Lab

Purpose: To find the amount of dissolved oxygen at different temperatures and varying amounts of light in water samples.

Procedures:
Temperatures:
1 Get ten different fresh water samples at varying degrees, which are ten degrees apart.
2 Use the measuring kit to test the oxygen saturation levels.
3 Make a graph.

Light:
1 Fill ten BOD bottles with aquatic culture, not agitate the samples.
2 Seal the bottle with caps, to prevent air entrapment.
3 Write the percent of light each sample will get.
4 Wrap bottles in screen or foil.
5 Test DO of the initial bottle.
6 Place all the bottles on their sides in a tray under a fluorescent light for 24 hours.

Results: Water in light will have more oxygen than water in less light. Water in cold temperatures will have more oxygen than warm water.

Evidence of Evolution

Type of Evidence
1 The fossil record
2 Geographic distribution
3 Homologous body structure
4 Similarities in early development

Evidence Reveals
1 gradual modification of species over time
2 different lines of evolutionary descent
3 species are descended from common ancestors
4 vertebrates share a common ancestry

Natural Selection

Natural Selection is a mechanism for change in population that occurs when an organisms with favorable variations for a particular environment survive, reproduce, and pass these variations on the next generation.
1 Individuals within the same species are not identical.
2 The environment presents many different challenges to an individual’s ability to survive and reproduce.
3 Organisms tend to produce more offspring than their environment can support; thus, individuals of a species often compete with one another to survive.
4 Individuals within a population that are better able to cope with the challenges of their environment tend to leave more offspring than those less suited to the environment.
5 The traits of the fittest individuals those best suited to a particular environment tend to increase.

EX. A species of fish lay thousands of eggs. Each individual will have slightly, different variations. Fishes may differ in color, fins, tail size, and speed. A fast fish will have a skin color, so it will blend in with the surrounding, survive, and reproduce than a slow fish with a more obvious coloring. These adaptations carry several generations will produce a change in the species.

EX. Darwin's finches are an excellent example of the way in which species' gene pools have adapted in order for long term survival via their offspring. The Darwin's Finches diagram below illustrates the way the finch has adapted to take advantage of feeding in different ecological niches. Their beaks have evolved over time to be best suited to their function. For example, the finches that eat grubs have a thin extended beak to poke into holes in the ground and extract the grubs. Finches that eat buds and fruit would be less successful at doing this, while their claw like beaks can grind down their food and thus give them a selective advantage in circumstances where buds are the only real food source for finches.

Darwins and Lamarck's Evolution

Darwin Theory of Evolution

1 Variation exists within the genes of every population or species (as a result of random mutation).
2 In a particular environment, some individuals of a population are better suited to survive and to have more offspring.
3 Over generations, the traits that certain individuals of a population able to survive and reproduce tend to increase in that population.
4 Evidence from fossils and many other sources indicates that living species evolved from species that no longer exist.

Lamarck Ideas of Evolution

1 Environment gives rise to changes in animals. EX. Blindness in moles
2 Life was structured in an orderly manner and that many different parts of all bodies make it possible for the organic movements of animals.

Phloem and Xylem

Phloem

1 Made of living cells with perforated and plates to allow stuff to flow through.
2 They transport food made in the leaves to all other parts of the plant, in both direction.
3 They carry sugars, fats, proteins, etc. to growing region in shoot tips and root tips and to/from storage organs in the roots.


Same
1 Plants are tubes that transport stuff around the plant.
2 The tubes go to every part of the plant.
3 Extend into roots



Xylem

1 Made of dead cells joined end to end with no end and walls between them.
2 The side walls are strong and stiff and contain lignin. This gives plant support.
3 They carry water and minerals from the roots up to the leaves in the transpiration stream.

Four Plant Divisions

Thallophyta are a primary taxonomic division of organisms which are plant-like, but not true plants, including all one-celled and cell aggregates which do not clearly show roots, stem, and leaf; including algae, fungi, and lichens.

Bryophytes are all embryophytes that are non-vascular. They have tissues and enclosed reproductive systems, but they lack vascular tissue that circulates liquids. They neither have flowers noir produce seeds, reproducing via spores; including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

Pteridophytesare vascular plants that neither flower nor produce seeds, hence they are called vascular cryptogams. Instead, they reproduce and disperse only via spores; including lycophytes, horsetails, and ferns.

Spermatophytes comprise these plants that produce seeds. They are a subset of the embryophytes; including conifers.

Human Body Systems

1 Circulatory: The purpose of the circulatory system is to transport blood to every part of the body. In the blood are all of the necessary gases, nutrients, and waste products; which are all transported to the necessary parts of the body. The structure of the circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries (carry blood away from the heart), veins (carry blood to the heart), capillaries (where nutrients and gas exchange occurs with the tissue), and blood.

2 Digestive: The purpose of the digestive system is to digest food and provide vital nutrients to the body. It also helps to regulate metabolism, as well as eliminate waste. The structure of the digestive system begins with the mouth. It continues with the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and ends with the rectum. There are several organs that associated with the digestive process. The liver, among other functions, produces bile (a digestive enzyme). The gall bladder stores bile. The pancreas also secretes digestive enzymes and hormones.

3 Nervous: The purpose of the nervous system controls all bodily activities. The structure of the nervous system is broken down into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord combines to create the central nervous system (acts as the body’s control center and coordinates body’s activities). The nerves that carry messages to and from the central nervous system to the entire body makes up the peripheral nervous system.

4 Endocrine: The purpose of the endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones that play a key role in the regulation of digestion, metabolism, and homeostasis. The structure of the endocrine system consists of a network of glands including the pituitary, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal, and parathyroid glands.

5 Reproductive: The purpose of the reproductive systems in male and females is to perpetuate the species through reproduction. The structure of the reproductive system is the male reproductive system consists of the testis (produce sperm), vas deferens (tube to transport sperm), urethra (continuation of vas deferens), and the penis. The female reproductive system consists of ovaries (produces eggs), the uterus, and the vagina.

6 Integumentary (skin): The purpose of the skin is it has several vital roles in maintaining equilibrium within the body. The skin is responsible for regulating your body temperature. It also serves as a protective layer to the underlying tissues. The structure of the skin is composed of two parts, the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the outer, thinner portion of the skin. The dermis is the inner, thicker portion of the skin. Also associated with the skin are melanin (pigment in the skin), keratin (dead, waterproof cells), and hair follicles.

7 Skeletal: The purpose of the skeletal system is it provides a framework for a tissue of the body. It also protects the upper organs. Muscles are anchored to the bones to allow for movement. Bones also produce blood cells, and store vital minerals. The structure of the skeletal is comprised of two parts, the axial skeleton, and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum. The appendicular skeleton are the bones of the arms and legs, including the shoulders and pelvic girdle. Joints, ligaments (connect bones to bones), and tendons (connect muscles to bones) are also associated with the skeletal system.

8 Respiratory: The purpose of the respiratory system is to provide the body with oxygen, and also to dispel carbon dioxide from the body. The structure of the respiratory system is the first part of the respiratory system is the trachea, this is the passageway of air from the mouth or nasal cavity. The trachea then divides into two bronchi, with are the tubes that lead to the lungs, which then branch into bronchioles that lead to the tiny air sacs called alveoli, where gas exchange occurs with the blood.

9. Muscular : The purpose is smooth muscle allows for the contraction of organs(moves food along the intestines) and blood vessels(pushes blood through). Cardiac muscle is responsible for the pumping of the heart. Skeletal muscle allows for all movement of the body. The structure of the muscular system is there are three types of muscles: smooth, cardiac, and skeletal. Smooth muscle is found in internal organs and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found in the heart. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones. Muscles are also voluntary(skeletal) or involuntary(smooth and cardiac).

10 Excretory/Urinary: The purpose of the excretory system is to filter the blood and remove major waste products such as ammonia and urea. It is also responsible for regulating the PH(acidity level) of the blood. The structure of the excretory system consists of the kidneys(filters the blood), the ureters(tubes that lead from kidneys to urinary bladder), the urinary bladder(where the urine is stored), and the urethra(tubes that lead from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body).

11 Immune/Lymphatic: The purpose of the immune system is too protect the body from infections and antigens. The structure of the immune system consists of a variety of structures found throughout the body. The lymph nodes and lymph vessels are found throughout the body and help to filter out antigens(disease causing microorganisms). The tonsils, thymus gland, spleen, and bone marrow are also involved in the immune system.

All the body systems work together, otherwise the body would be dead.

Three Domains of Life

The three domains of life are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Archaea looks like bacteria, but have different genes for managing and reading out their DNA. It’s the harshest environments on the Earth and oldest known organism. They are found in swamps, hot springs, and the Dead Sea. Reproduce binary fission. The kingdom is Archaebacteria which is a single-celled prokaryote. This kingdom has some movement and gets energy by breaking down chemicals in their environment. Bacteria is a prokaryotic organism in a rigid cell wall and no nucleus. The most common shapes are bacillus (rod-like), coccus (round), and spirillum (corkscrew). Some have flagella used for locomotion. Some bacteria cause human and animal disease. They live in a weather harsh condition and form hibernating structures called endospores. Most reproduce by binary fission, but some can reproduce by conjugation. Live in water, nitrogen gas from the air. Soil bacteria decompose organic matter and add soil. The kingdom is Eubacteria: some movement, autotrophic and heterotrophic. Eukarya is the last domain. It’s the most familiar domain. Cells with nucleus are in this category. Kingdom Protista is a eukaryotic, unicellular organism. Found in moist or aquatic areas, they reproduce by binary fission, but sometimes conjugation. They are classified by their locomotive structures. Kingdom Fungi have a body composed of an interwoven mass of threads (mycelium). When enough energy is stored, fungi may produce fruiting bodies with spores. They reproduce sexually. Classified by there shape and color of their fruiting bodies and spore containers. Live in symbiotic relationships. Kingdom Plantae are eukaryotic, multicellar organism that have cell walls. Plants get their food through photosynthesis. They have an alternation of generation life cycle consisting of diploid sporophyte generation and a haploid gametophyte generation. Angiosperm is a flowering plant. They are successful because their reproductive structure are located within flowers from protection, fertilization takes place within the plant’s ovary and their seed develop within fruits that attract animals and entice them to disperse seed, and their broad leave increases the amount of sunlight for photosynthesis. Grouped into monocots and dicots. Kingdom Animalia are complex eukaryotic organisms. They are multicellular and lack a cell wall. Animals are heterotrophic, sexual reproduction, move, and rapid response to the environment. Animals are subdivided into invertebrates and vertebrates.

Incomplete Dominance

Incomplete Dominance is a condition in which a heterozygous offspring has a phenotype that is distinct from, and intermediate to, homozygous, parental phenotype. An example is in cross-pollination experiments between red and white snapdragon plants, the resulting offspring are pink. The dominant allele that produces the red color is not completely expressed over the recessive allele that produces the white color.

Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype

1 The genetic makeup or constitution of an organism.
2 Homozygous and heterozygous dominate and recessive.
3 In the DNA

Same

1 Connect with a person’s genetic code.

Phenotype

1 The physical charactistics associated with a certain genotype.
2 Environment
3 Behavior
4 Looks from outside

Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes

Both Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes

1 Pairs of chromosomes
2 Make a human being
3 Genetic Information

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Autosomes Only<
1 A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. (any one but X and Y)
2 Human diploid cell has 22 pairs.



Sex Chromosomes Only

1 A chromosome that determines the sex of an individual.
2 XX in female
3 XY in male
4 1 pair of sex chromosomes

Allele and Genes

An allele is one or more different genes that occupy the same place on a chromosome, allowing hereditary variation. A gene is the basic unit of heredity, which is passed down from a parent to offspring and can be transcribed into a protein chain. An allele is a variant of a gene. We have two alleles of every gene, located on the same spot on different chromosomes.

Transcription in Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Transcription In Eukaryotic Cells

1 Occurs in the nucleus
2 DNA is wounded around histones to form nucleosomes and packaged as chromatin.
mRNA modifies through splicing, capping, and poly A tail.

Same

1 Enzymes are homologous.
2 DNA and RNA
3 Chemical synthesis called transcription.


Transcription In Prokaryotic Cells

1 Occurs in the cytoplasma.
2 Not usually modified
3 DNA is much more accessible to RNA polymerase.

Translation

Translation is a polypeptide chain in the mRNA. Each triplet constitutes a codon in the chain or a stop or start signal. This process requires tRNA and ribsomes.

Transcription in Eukaryotic Cells

The Transcription in Eukaryotic Cells of DNA to protein is called transcription, the process of RNA is synthesized from the direction of DNA. The three steps are initiation, elongation, and termination. MRNA copies the DNA strands and the genetic information is carried to the three bases codons. The codons are translated into a linear sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chains. RNA is formed from nucleotide subunits, a single base and three phosphates RNA binds with the DNA sequenced called promoter region. Nucleotides pair with the complementary bases on DNA strands. There are three stages in RNA polymerase I rRNA Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA, II is mRNA Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide, and III is tRNA Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation. Transcription begins at the promote and ends at the terminator.

DNA Replication

DNA Replication is a DNA molecule that is double stranded and has the ability to make exact copies of itself. The hydrogen bonds break between the nucleotide bases and the two strands separate when DNA is required by organisms. By this new bases are made by bringing the cell and paired up with each two separate strands forming new identical, double stranded DNA. In the enzymes, the double helix is unwounded by the helicase. The DNA polymerase binds to one strand and moves 3 to 5 direction, assembling a leading strand of nucleotide bases reforming the double helix. DNA synthesis only occurs 5 to 3 a second type of DNA polymerase binds to others strands as the double helix opens. This molecule must synthesis disconnection segments of polynucleotide.

DNA and RNA

DNA

1 Double stranded
2 Contains Thymine
3 Deoxyribose is the sugar
4 Provides instructions for protein synthesis.
5 Molecules that stores and passes one genetic information from one generation to the next.
6 A- T and G-C

Same

1 Sugar-phosphate backbone with nucleotide bases.
2 Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine



RNA

1 Ribose is the sugar
2 Single stranded
3 Does the work of protein synthesis
4 Contains Uracil
5 Find in viruses and productions of proteins.
6 A-U and G-C

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
1 A process of asexual reproduction in which the cells divide into two daughter cells producing a replica with an equal number of chromosomes.
2 Function is cellular reproduction.
3 Occurs in all organisms
4 Two diploid daughter cells
5 One division of nucleus in cytokinesis

Same

1 DNA replication
2 Cell division
3 Same stages
4 Each cell has same number of chromosomes.


Meiosis

1 A type of cellular reproduction in which the number of chromosomes are reduced by half through separation of homologous chromosomes in diploid cells.
2 Function is growth, repair, asexual reproduction
3 Occurs in humans, animals, plants
4 Four haploid daughter cells
5 Two nuclear cytoplasmic division

Mitosis and Binary Fission

Mitosis

1 Divides into two replicated identical daughter cells.
2 Stages of the cell cycle: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
3 Eukaryotes divide by a more complicated system
4 Made of DNA strands and proteins.


Same

1 Asexual Reproduction
2 Cell Division
3 Cytokinesis


Binary Fission

1 Single celled organism
2 Prokaryotic cells divide through a simple form of division
3 Divided two sized offspring
4 Single “naked” strand splits and forms a duplication of itself.
5 Stages are DNA replication, Chromosomes segregation, and cytokinesis.

Cell Cycle

Interphase contains 4 stages: G1, S, G2, and mitosis. G1 is the resting stage. Its when the cell grows and mature. S is when DNA is copied. G2 is when the cell prepares for division.
Mitosis is a nuclear division plus cytokinesis and produces two identical daughter cells and the number of chromosomes remain the same.>



Prophase is when the chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

Metaphase is when chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.

Anaphase is when the sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and move apart.

Telophase is when the chromosomes gather at the opposite end of the cell.

Cytokinesis is when the cell membrane pinches the cytoplasm in half.

Catabolic and Anabolic Reaction

Both Catabolic and Anabolic Reaction

1 Both have to do there jobs to make everything work.
2 Two chemical processes called metabolism.
Additional energy must be supplied to start reaction.


Catabolic Reaction Only

1 Molecules are broken down into smaller components.
2 Energy is released.
3 Exergonic Reaction
4 Change in free energy is negative in these pathways.
EX. Cellular Respiration


Anabolic Reaction Only

1 Small molecules join to make larger ones.
2 Use up energy
3 Endergonic Reaction
4 Change in free energy is positive in these pathways.
EX. Photosynthesis

Viruses, Prions, and Viroids

Viruses- Infection that reproduces in a host cell. Antibiotics don’t heal the infection. Vaccines may prevent the viruses, but won’t cure. EX. FLU, HIV, Polio






Prions: Infectious agent composed of proteins. EX. Creutzfeldt Jakob and Mad Cow.







Viroids: Plant pathogens contain short stretch of highly single-stranded RNA without a protein coat. EX. Potatoes and Tomatoes







Considered to be Alive??
Viruses are a parasite that need a host cell to grow, so they are “alive” because they have strands of DNA or RNA. DNA is a code for life.

Prions are “alive” because they are considered to be a virus and cause disease. They have no DNA, but instead mutated protein.

Viroids are “alive” because thay are capable of causing formation of more viroids, which goes back to the seven characteristics of life, reproduction.

Characterists Necessary for Life

1 Movement
2 Metabolism
3 Growth and Development
4 Responding to the Environment (Stimuli)
5 Reproduction
6 Made of Cells
7 Homeostasis

Transport is Essential for Life

Transport is essential for life because cells must import and export materials in order to maintain life-sustaining activities. Two types of transport move material across plasma membrane: passive and active transport.

Passive and Active Transport

Both Passive and Active Transport
1 Transport molecules through cell membrane
2 Make use of proteins embedded in cell membrane in order to move other molecules.

Passive Transport only
1 Doesn’t expend metabolic energy.
2 Flow of materials is down the concentration gradient.
3 Materials move to reach equilibrium.

Example: diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Active Transport Only

1 Uses metabolic energy.
2 Material flow is against the concentration gradient.
3 Materials accumulate one side of a membrane

Example: Sodium-potassium pump

Four Types of Cellular Transport

Diffusion - the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration. The two kinds of diffusion are osmosis and facilitated diffusion. An example is when you have an air freshener in your house and you go to the other side of the room, you can smell the air freshener because it was spread throughout the entire room to smell the same.

Osmosis - the diffusion of water (across a membrane)




Facilitated Diffusion: molecules diffuse across membranes, with the help of transport proteins.










Active Transport- When cells must move materials in an opposite direction - against a concentration gradient. Transport proteins within the membrane must use energy (ATP) to move substances either to the inside or outside of the membrane.

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Characteristics of both Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
1 Both have DNA as their genetic material.
2 Covered by cell membrane.
3 RNA
4 Made from same basic chemicals: Carbs, Proteins, Nucleic Acid, minerals, fats, and vitamins.
5 Ribosome’s
6 Regulates the flow of nutrients and waters that enter and leave them.
7 Similar basic metabolism, like photosynthesis and reproduction.
8 Require a supply of energy.
9 Highly regulated by elaborate sensing systems (“chemical noses”) that make them awake of the reactions within them and environment around them.

Characteristics of only Eukaryotic Cells
1 Definite membrane bound nucleus.
2 Contains membrane bound organelles.
3 Found in Kingdoms: Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protista.
4 Size is 10-100um
5 Mitosis
6 Multiple linear chromosomes

Examples: Crabs, trees, Mushrooms, and ameba

Characteristics of only Prokaryotic Cells
1 No nuclear membrane (nucleoid region).
2 No membrane bound organelles
3 Found in Kingdoms: Eubacteria and Archabacteria.
4 Size is .01-10 um
5 Binary Fission
6 Single circular chromosomes

Examples: Bacteria, Blue-green algae